Sejarah SEO

Menurut Danny Sullivan, istilah “search engine optimization” pertama kali digunakan pada 26 Juli tahun 1997 oleh sebuah pesan spam yang diposting di Usenet. Pada periode tersebut algoritma mesin pencari belum terlalu kompleks sehingga mudah dimanipulasi.

Versi awal algoritma pencarian didasarkan sepenuhnya pada informasi yang disediakan oleh webmaster melalui meta tag pada kode html situs web mereka. Meta tag menyediakan informasi tentang konten yang terkandung pada suatu halaman web dengan serangkaian katakunci (keyword).

Sebagian webmaster melakukan manipulasi dengan cara menuliskan katakunci yang tidak sesuai dengan konten situs yang sesungguhnya, sehingga mesin pencari salah menempatkan dan memeringkat situs tersebut. Hal ini menyebabkan hasil pencarian menjadi tidak akurat dan menimbulkan kerugian baik bagi mesin pencari maupun bagi pengguna internet yang mengharapkan informasi yang relevan dan berkualitas.

Larry Page dan Sergey Brin, dua mahasiswa doktoral ilmu komputer Universitas Stanford, berusaha mengatasi permasalahan tersebut dengan membangun Backrub, sebuah mesin pencari yang sepenuhnya mengandalkan algoritma matematis untuk memeringkat halaman web. Algoritma tersebut, yang dinamakan PageRank, merupakan nilai fungsi matematis yang kompleks dari kombinasi antara perhitungan jumlah link yang mengarah pada suatu halaman web dengan analisis atas bobot masing-masing link tersebut, dengan skala antara 1–10. Berdasarkan prinsip kerja PageRank, secara umum bisa dikatakan bahwa halaman web yang memperoleh peringkat tinggi adalah halaman web yang banyak di-link oleh halaman web lain. Nilai PageRank juga akan semakin tinggi apabila halaman web yang mengarah kepadanya juga memiliki peringkat yang tinggi. Jadi nilai sebuah link dari situs seperti Yahoo! bernilai lebih besar daripada kombinasi nilai link dari seratus situs web yang tak dikenal.

Backrub hanyalah sebuah embrio. Pada tahun 1998 Page dan Brin mendirikan Google yang merupakan versi "dewasa" dari Backrub. Dalam waktu singkat Google memperoleh reputasi dan kepercayaan dari publik pengguna internet karena berhasil menyajikan hasil pencarian yang relatif bersih (tidak dimanipulasi), cepat, dan relevan. PageRank lantas menjadi sistem standar baik bagi mesin pencari lain maupun bagi webmaster yang berusaha agar situs webnya memperoleh nilai PageRank setinggi mungkin sehingga menempati posisi tertinggi pada hasil pencarian.

Vitamin K2 and Cranial Development

One of the things Dr. Weston Price noticed about healthy traditional cultures worldwide is their characteristically broad faces, broad dental arches and wide nostrils. Due to the breadth of their dental arches, they invariably had straight teeth and enough room for wisdom teeth. As soon as these same groups adopted white flour and sugar, the next generation to be born grew up with narrow faces, narrow dental arches, crowded teeth, pinched nostrils and a characteristic underdevelopment of the middle third of the face.

Here's an excerpt from Nutrition and Physical Degeneration, about traditional and modernized Swiss groups. Keep in mind these are Europeans we're talking about (although he found the same thing in all the races he studied):

The reader will scarcely believe it possible that such marked differences in facial form, in the shape of the dental arches, and in the health condition of the teeth as are to be noted when passing from the highly modernized lower valleys and plains country in Switzerland to the isolated high valleys can exist. Fig. 3 shows four girls with typically broad dental arches and regular arrangement of the teeth. They have been born and raised in the Loetschental Valley or other isolated valleys of Switzerland which provide the excellent nutrition that we have been reviewing.
Another change that is seen in passing from the isolated groups with their more nearly normal facial developments, to the groups of the lower valleys, is the marked irregularity of the teeth with narrowing of the arches and other facial features... While in the isolated groups not a single case of a typical mouth breather was found, many were seen among the children of the lower-plains group. The children studied were from ten to sixteen years of age.

Price attributed this physical change to a lack of minerals and the fat-soluble vitamins necessary to make good use of them: vitamin A, vitamin D and what he called "activator X"-- now known to be vitamin K2 MK-4. The healthy cultures he studied all had an adequate source of vitamin K2, but many ate very little K1 (which comes mostly from vegetables). Inhabitants of the Loetschental valley ate green vegetables only in summer, due to the valley's harsh climate. The rest of the year, the diet was limited chiefly to whole grain sourdough rye bread and pastured dairy products.

The dietary transitions Price observed were typically from mineral- and vitamin-rich whole foods to refined modern foods, predominantly white flour and sugar. The villagers of the Loetschental valley obtained their fat-soluble vitamins from pastured dairy, which is particularly rich in vitamin K2 MK-4.

In a modern society like the U.S., most people exhibit signs of poor cranial development. How many people do you know with perfectly straight teeth who never required braces? How many people do you know whose wisdom teeth erupted normally?

The archaeological record shows that our hunter-gatherer ancestors generally didn't have crooked teeth. Humans evolved to have dental arches in proportion to their tooth size, like all animals. Take a look at these chompers. That skull is from an archaeological site in the Sahara desert that predates agriculture in the region. Those beautiful teeth are typical of paleolithic humans and modern hunter-gatherers. Crooked teeth and impacted wisdom teeth are only as old as agriculture. However, Price found that with care, certain traditional cultures were able to build well-formed skulls on an agricultural diet.

So was Price on to something, or was he just cherry picking individuals that supported his hypothesis? It turns out there's a developmental syndrome in the literature that might shed some light on this. It's called Binder's syndrome. Here's a description from a review paper about Binder's syndrome (emphasis mine):

The essential features of maxillo-nasal dysplasia were initially described by Noyes in 1939, although it was Binder who first defined it as a distinct clinical syndrome. He reported on three cases and recorded six specific characteristics:⁵

• Arhinoid face.
• Abnormal position of nasal bones.
• Inter-maxillary hypoplasia with associated malocclusion.
• Reduced or absent anterior nasal spine.
• Atrophy of nasal mucosa.
• Absence of frontal sinus (not obligatory).

Individuals with Binder's syndrome have a characteristic appearance that is easily recognizable.⁶ The mid-face profile is hypoplastic, the nose is flattened, the upper lip is convex with a broad philtrum, the nostrils are typically crescent or semi-lunar in shape due to the short collumela, and a deep fold or fossa occurs between the upper lip and the nose, resulting in an acute nasolabial angle.

Allow me to translate: in Binder's patients, the middle third of the face is underdeveloped, they have narrow dental arches and crowded teeth, small nostrils and abnormally small sinuses (sometimes resulting in mouth breathing). Sound familiar? So what causes Binder's syndrome? I'll give you a hint: it can be caused by prenatal exposure to warfarin (coumadin).

Warfarin is rat poison. It kills rats by causing them to lose their ability to form blood clots, resulting in massive hemmorhage. It does this by depleting vitamin K, which is necessary for the proper functioning of blood clotting factors. It's used (in small doses) in humans to thin the blood as a treatment for abnormal blood clots. As it turns out, Binder's syndrome can be caused by a number of things that interfere with vitamin K metabolism. The sensitive period for humans is the first trimester. I think we're getting warmer...

Another name for Binder's syndrome is "warfarin embryopathy". There happens to be a rat model of it. Dr. Bill Webster's group at the University of Sydney injected rats daily with warfarin for up to 12 weeks, beginning on the day they were born (rats have a different developmental timeline than humans). They also administered large doses of vitamin K1 along with it. This is to ensure the rats continue to clot normally, rather than hemorrhaging. Another notable property of warfarin that I've mentioned before is its ability to inhibit the conversion of vitamin K1 to vitamin K2 MK-4. Here's what they had to say about the rats:

The warfarin-treated rats developed a marked maxillonasal hypoplasia associated with a 11-13% reduction in the length of the nasal bones compared with controls... It is proposed that (1) the facial features of the human warfarin embryopathy are caused by reduced growth of the embryonic nasal septum, and (2) the septal growth retardation occurs because the warfarin-induced extrahepatic vitamin K deficiency prevents the normal formation of the vitamin K-dependent matrix gla protein in the embryo.

"Maxillonasal hypoplasia" means underdevelopment of the jaws and nasal region. Proper development of this region requires fully active matrix gla protein (MGP), which I've written about before in the context of vascular calcification. MGP requires vitamin K to activate it, and it seems to prefer K2 MK-4 to K1, at least in the vasculature. Administering K2 MK-4 along with warfarin prevents warfarin's ability to cause arterial calcification (thought to be an MGP-dependent mechanism), whereas administering K1 does not.
Here are a few quotes from a review paper by Dr. Webster's group. I have to post the whole abstract because it's a gem:

The normal vitamin K status of the human embryo appears to be close to deficiency [I would argue in most cases the embryo is actually deficient, as are most adults in industrial societies]. Maternal dietary deficiency or use of a number of therapeutic drugs during pregnancy, may result in frank vitamin K deficiency in the embryo. First trimester deficiency results in maxillonasal hypoplasia in the neonate with subsequent facial and orthodontic implications. A rat model of the vitamin K deficiency embryopathy shows that the facial dysmorphology is preceded by uncontrolled calcification in the normally uncalcified nasal septal cartilage, and decreased longitudinal growth of the cartilage, resulting in maxillonasal hypoplasia. The developing septal cartilage is normally rich in the vitamin K-dependent protein matrix gla protein (MGP). It is proposed that functional MGP is necessary to maintain growing cartilage in a non-calcified state. Developing teeth contain both MGP and a second vitamin K-dependent protein, bone gla protein (BGP). It has been postulated that these proteins have a functional role in tooth mineralization. As yet this function has not been established and abnormalities in tooth formation have not been observed under conditions where BGP and MGP should be formed in a non-functional form.

Could vitamin K insufficiency be related to underdeveloped facial structure in industrialized cultures?  Price felt that to ensure the proper development of their children, mothers should eat a diet rich in fat-soluble vitamins both before and during pregnancy. This makes sense in light of what we now know. There is a pool of vitamin K2 MK-4 in the organs that turns over very slowly, in addition to a pool in the blood that turns over rapidly. Entering pregnancy with a full store means a greater chance of having enough of the vitamin for the growing fetus. Healthy traditional cultures often fed special foods rich in fat-soluble vitamins to women of childbearing age and expectant mothers, thus ensuring beautiful and robust progeny.

Sejarah Microsoft SQL Server

Pada tahun 1988, Microsoft mengeluarkan versi pertama dari SQL Server. Pada saat itu masih didesain untuk platform OS/2 dan didevelop bersama antara Microsoft dengan Sybase. Selama awal tahun 1990an, Microsoft mulai untuk membuat versi baru dari SQL Server untuk platform NT-nya. Selama proses development tersebut Microsoft memutuskan bahwa Microsoft SQL Server ini harus bisa terintegrasi dengan kuat dengan sistem operasi NT-nya.

Pada tahun 1993, Windows NT 3.1 dan SQL Server 4.2 untuk NT dirilis oleh Microsoft. Target Microsoft untuk mengkombinasikan antara performa database server yang tinggi serta kemudahan cara penggunaan dan administrasinya rupanya tercapai melalui SQL Server ini. Microsoft terus berhasil memasarkan SQL Server dan menjadi database server yang terkenal. Pada tahun 1994, Microsoft dan Sybase secara resmi mengakhiri kerjasamanya.

Di tahun 1995 Microsoft merilis versi 6.0 dari SQL Server. Versi ini merupakan versi yang penting karena sebagian besar merupakan hasil tulis ulang dan juga redesain dari core technology sebelumnya. Versi 6.0 ini menawarkan peningkatan pada performa, built-in replication dan juga administrasi yang tersentralisasi. Pada tahun 1996, Microsoft merilis SQL Server versi 6.5 yang berisi berbagai macam kemampuan tambahan dan juga fitur-fitur baru.

Pada tahun 1997, Microsoft merilis SQL Server 6.5 Enterprise Edition. SQL Server 7.0 dirilis Microsoft pada tahun 1998 dan database engine-nya ditulis ulang agar lebih optimal. Akhirnya tahun 2000 Microsoft mengeluarkan SQL. Versi SQL Server 2000 ini berbasis pada framework yang ada pada versi 7.0 sebelumnya.

The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: The Final Word

Over the course of the last month, I've outlined some of the major findings of the Tokelau Island Migrant study. It's one of the most comprehensive studies I've found of a traditional culture transitioning to a modern diet and lifestyle. It traces the health of the inhabitants of the Pacific island Tokelau over time, as well as the health of Tokelauan migrants to New Zealand.

Unfortunately, the study began after the introduction of modern foods. We will never know for sure what Tokelauan health was like when their diet was completely traditional. To get some idea, we have to look at other traditional Pacific islanders such as the Kitavans.

What we can say is that an increase in the consumption of modern foods on Tokelau, chiefly white wheat flour and refined sugar, correlated with an increase in several non-communicable disorders, including overweight, diabetes and severe tooth decay. Further modernization as Tokelauans migrated to New Zealand corresponded with an increase in nearly every disorder measured, including heart disease, weight gain, diabetes, asthma and gout. These are all "diseases of civilization", which are not observed in hunter-gatherers and certain non-industrial populations throughout the world.

One of the most interesting things about Tokelauans is their extreme saturated fat intake, 40- 50% of calories. That's more than any other population I'm aware of. Yet Tokelauans appear to have a low incidence of heart attacks, lower than their New Zealand- dwelling relatives who eat half as much saturated fat. This should not be buried in the scientific literature; it should be common knowledge.

Overall, I believe the Tokelau Island Migrant study (among others) shows us that partially replacing nourishing traditional foods with modern foods such as processed wheat and sugar, is enough to cause a broad range of disorders not seen in hunter-gatherers but typical of modern societies. Changes in lifestyle between Tokelau and New Zealand may have also played a role.
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Background and Overview
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Dental Health
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Cholesterol and Cardiovascular Health
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Weight Gain
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Diabetes
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Asthma
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Gout

The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Gout

Gout is a disorder in which uric acid crystals form in the joints, causing intense pain. The body forms uric acid as a by-product of purine metabolism. Purines are a building block of DNA, among other things. Uric acid is normally excreted into the urine, hence the name.

On Tokelau between 1971 and 1982, gout prevalence fell slightly. In migrants to New Zealand, gout prevalence began at the same level as on Tokelau but increased rapidly over the same time period. Here are the prevalence data for men, from Migration and Health in a Small Society: the Case of Tokelau (I don't have data for women):

This paper found that the age-standardized risk of developing gout was 9 times higher in New Zealand than on Tokelau for men, and 2.7 times higher for women.

The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Background and Overview
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Dental Health
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Cholesterol and Cardiovascular Health
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Weight Gain
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Diabetes
The Tokelau Island Migrant Study: Asthma