Install Windows 7 Lewat FlashDisk (Updated)

Unik Informatika - Ada banyak cara untuk menginstall Windows 7, dan pasti juga banyak cara untuk menginstall Windows 8 nantinya, tapi untuk sekarang ayo kita bicarakan tentang menginstall Windows 7 lewat Flashdisk atau yang nantinya nya akan saya singkat dengan FD untuk kemudahan dalam menulis, nah tutorial ini sudah dipraktekkan dan berhasil 100%.

Nah, bagaimana caranya dan apa-apa saja bahan yang harus dipersiapkan? Cekidot :

Bahan yang harus dipersiapkan :

1. FD kapasitas 4 GB atau tergantung berapa besar nantinya Windows 7 anda.

2. Master Windows 7 dalam DVD atau Image (ISO, dll).

3. PC ber OS Windows 7.

Nah, ayo kita mulai untuk mengolah FD nya dulu :

1. Colokkan FD ke slot USB PC anda

2. Buka CMD, caranya tekan tombol lambang Windows + R dan ketikkan cmd dan enter atau buka Start dan ketikkan cmd dan enter.

3. Setelah CMD terbuka, tuliskan 'Diskpart' lalu tekan enter, setelah itu ada tulisan yes/no, pilih yes atau tulis yes saja untuk masuk.

4. Setelah itu tulis 'List Disk' lalu enter untuk melihat index Hard Dist kita.

5. Lalu tulis 'Select disk 1' lalu enter atau nomor berapa saja yang di list yang ukurannya setara dengan FD agan.

6. Lalu tulis 'Clean' untuk membersihkan FD anda.

7. Lalu langkah selanjutnya tulis 'Create partition primary' lalu enter untuk menjadikan partisi FD kita menjadi Primary.

8. Lalu tulis 'Format recommended' lalu enter untuk menformat FD kita.

9. Lalu tulis 'active', lalu enter untuk mengaktivkan FD supaya bisa boot.

10. Terus langkah terakhirnya tulis 'exit'.

Nih ada gambarnya :

Untuk langkah selanjutnya kita bermain dengan bahan lain lagi yaitu :

1. Siapkan Master Windows yang tadi udah saya suruh siapain diatas.

2. Copy semua file windows 7 ke FD.

3. Sudah, tunggu langkah selanjutnya.

Langkah selanjutnya kita siap untuk menginstall :

1. Colokkan FD ke tempat PC yang ingin di install ulang.

2. Boot nya diganti ke FD (kalo Laptop saya tekan 'F12').

3. Install Windows 7 nya.

4. Selesai.

Terima kasih sudah berkunjung. dan thanks to agan rejal maghrum.

Just Another Day at the Office: Boehringer Ingelheim Settles Allegations of Deceptive Off-Label Marketing, Kickbacks

Legal settlements by pharmaceutical companies for less than $100 million now seem to barely rate as news in the US. The best report, albeit short, of a by Boehringer Ingelheim for a mere $95 million, seems to be in the Hartford (CT) Courant. The summary was:

Boehringer Ingelheim, a German company with U.S. headquarters in Ridgefield, has agreed to pay $95 million to settle allegations that it promoted four drugs for uses unsupported by research, and that it paid kickbacks to doctors to prescribe the drugs, the U.S. Department of Justice has announced.

It included most of the usual elements.

Off Label Marketing

Two of the drugs in the case are for treating chronic bronchitis and emphysema, and were suggested for children with asthma and coughs from the flu. The drugs had not been tested on children.

'I was concerned that doctors were basing their treatment decisions on false information,' [former Boehringer Ingelheim pharmaceutical representative and whistle blower Ron] Heiden said in the released statement. 'Promoting off-label treatments with potential serious consequences just to increase sales is heinous behavior.'

I note parenthetically that some industry apologists belittle the possible harms of truthful off-label marketing (e.g., look here).  However, at least in this case, the marketing was alleged to be based on falsehoods. 

Furthermore, some industry apologists may also decry the regulation of off-label marketing as a violation of the US Constitutional guarantees of freedom from government infringement on individual free speech.  Note, however, that Boehringer Ingelheim in this case got exclusive rights to market these drugs for many years from the government.  In exchange for these rights, the law restricted their right to market the drugs to approved indications.  

Promotion Beyond the Evidence

The company told doctors Aggrenox was better than Plavis to reduce the risk of heart attacks, but there was no evidence to support that claim, the Justice Department said. The drug had FDA approval to prevent secondary strokes.

Again, the truthfulness of the premises underlying the marketing apparently was questionable, to use charitable phrasing.  

Kickbacks to Physicians

This information came from the AP version of the story, here via the Washington Post:

the settlement resolved allegations that Boehringer Ingelheim paid kickbacks to health care professionals to induce them to prescribe all four of the drugs. These kickbacks included payments for participating in advisory boards, speakers’ training programs, speaker programs and consultant programs.

 Note further that apologists for industry also belittle the importance of the effects of conflicts of interest on health care (e.g., look here).  In this case, activities that are often referred to as species of conflicts of interest, e.g., advisory board membership, speakers board membership, consulting, apparently were meant as vehicles for payments to induce prescribing.  That is, apparently what some might have called conflicts of interests were allegedly kickbacks, or bribes.  As we have discussed before, it is one thing to be paid for legitimate clinical, educational, or scientific activity when such payments might influence professional, educational, or scientific judgments or activities about other matters.  It is entirely another thing to be paid a kickback to favor a drug company's marketing campaign instead of making decisions that put patients first.

A Corporate Integrity Agreement

[From the Hartford Courant]

Also as part of the settlement, Boehringer agreed to enter into an expansive Corporate Integrity Agreement to avoid such marketing in the future.

 We have noted before that such agreements do not seem to deter future bad behavior, (e.g., look here).

No Admission of Wrongdoing by the Company

[from the AP]

'The pharmaceutical industry as a whole has undergone significant changes over the past decade and continues to be under intense scrutiny,' said Greg Behar, president and chief executive officer of Boehringer Ingelheim. 'Likewise, our internal processes and compliance practices have evolved significantly over the years.' The company said it has been cooperating with the government investigation.

Again, if there is no acknowledgement by the company that it did wrong, do we expect it not to do wrong in the future?

Summary

Here was yet another legal settlement that documents the pervasiveness of the influence of marketing and public relations over physicians' professional responsibilities.  This is just one of several recent posts (e.g., here and here) about the malevolent influence of deceptive marketing or public relations on the evidence that health care professionals should be using to make the best possible decisions for individual patients.

Such legal settlements seemingly have had no effect on the bad behavior of big health care organizations, while they continually erode trust in these organizations and their leadership, and trust in physicians to put patients ahead of personal gain. 

Furthermore, these cases seem to be part of a larger social problem.  It seems that nowadays the leadership of large, powerful organizations feels free to promote their own interests using psychologically sophisticated but deceptive marketing and public relations strategies no matter what their effect on the public welfare.

As we have said all too many times before, we will not deter unethical behavior by health care organizations until the people who authorize, direct or implement bad behavior fear some meaningfully negative consequences. Real health care reform needs to make health care leaders accountable, and especially accountable for the bad behavior that helped make them rich.

i don't know about y'all but i am super excited that today is actually halloween b/c i feel like we have been celebrating it for about 10 days now!!  walker is obsessed w/ candy so tonight should be interesting to say the least!

*images courtesy of calder clark, lonny, the glitter guide

Download 10 Lagu Barat Terbaru November 2012

Limit Komputer | Chart musik atau tangga lagu memang selalu jadi perhatian lebih bagi pencinta musik, tak terkecuali Chart Musik Barat yang selalu jadi sorotan dan pembicaraan panas di seluruh belahan dunia. dalam artikel ini saya menyediakan 10 daftar lagunya berserta link untuk mendownloadnya.

Berikut 10 daftar lagu barat periode 1-10 November

1. One More Night <> Maroon 5 | Download

2. Gangnam Style <> Psy | Download

3. Some Night <> Fun | Download

4. We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together <> Taylor Swift | Download

5. Die Young <> Ke$ha | Download

6. As Long As You Love Me <> Justin Bieber | Download

7. Too Close <> Alex Clare | Download

8. Diamond <> Rihanna | Download

9. Let Me Love You (Until You Learn to Love Yourself) <> Ne-yo | Download

10. Blow Me (One Last Kiss) <> P!nk | Download

9 Cara Hancurkan Lemak di Tubuh Anda

Unik Informatika - Sampai kapan Anda akan menyimpan kumpulan lemak yang ada di perut itu? Merasa sudah menyerah untuk menghilangkan lemak tersebut? Jangan dulu! Arnav Shankar, pelatih kebugaran di Health Me Up (25/10) akan memberikan beberapa cara untuk menyingkirkan kumpulan lemak di perut Anda, selamanya! Berikut caranya :

1. Lakukan latihan kebugaran dan kekuatan selama tiga kali seminggu. Ini akan meningkatkan metabolisme dan membantu anda membakar lebih banyak kalori, bahkan ketika beristirahat.

2. Hentikan melakukan sit up 500 kali dan lakukan olahraga dasar dengan lebih sering, seperti menggunakan windmill, sit up Turki, dan lainnya.

3. Lakukan 2 - 3 kali olahraga berintensitas tinggi per minggu. Tak harus terlalu lama, cukup 10 - 20 menit jika dilakukan dengan benar.

4. Cobalah lebih aktif dalam kegiatan sehari-hari. meski Anda meluangkan waktu satu jam di gym setiap hari, masih ada banyak waktu yang bisa dimanfaatkan untuk tetap aktif. Misalkan bermain dengan anak-anak, beraktivitas bersama teman-teman, dan lainnya.

5. Tidur selama enam sampai delapan jam setiap malam. Percaya atau tidak, kurang tidur memicu hormon yang bisa membuat lemak berkumpul dan membuat Anda susah langsing.

6. Kurangi stres yang Anda rasakan. Cobalah bermeditasi atau teknik lain yang membuat Anda tenang. Stres yang memicu munculnya hormon kortisol akan membuat Anda terus menambah berat badan dan membuat Anda menua lebih cepat.

7. Konsumsi ebih banyak protein, serat, dan lemak sehat. Ini berarti Anda harus sering mengonsumsi daging tanpa lemak, sayuran, dan kacang-kacangan.

8. Kurangi konsumsi makanan cepat saji, makanan manis, dan gula olahan. Makanan tersebut adalah musuh paling besar untuk mengurangi lemak di perut. Selain itu, makanan tersebut juga meningkatkan risiko terkena penyakit lain seperti diabetes, tekanan darah tinggi, dan lainnya.

9. Minum lebih banyak air, minimal dua liter sehari. Jika Anda kekurangan cairan, lemak tak akan bisa terbakar dengan efisien.

Itulah beberapa cara yang dianjurkan untuk mengurangi lemak di daerah perut. berhasil atau tidak itu kembali ke komitmen kita masing..

Selamat mencoba dan semoga berhasil..

13 Pengguna Twitter Pertama di Indonesia

Unik Informatika - Twitter adalah sebuah situs web yang dimiliki dan dioperasikan oleh Twitter Inc., yang menawarkan jejaring sosial berupa mikroblog sehingga memungkinkan penggunanya untuk mengirim dan membaca pesan yang disebut kicauan (tweets). Kicauan adalah teks tulisan hingga 140 karakter yang ditampilkan pada halaman profil pengguna. Kicauan bisa dilihat secara luar, namun pengirim dapat membatasi pengiriman pesan ke daftar teman-teman mereka saja. Pengguna dapat melihat kicauan penulis lain yang dikenal dengan sebutan pengikut/follower.

Semua pengguna dapat mengirim dan menerima kicauan melalui situs Twitter, aplikasi eksternal yang kompatibel (telepon seluler), atau dengan pesan singkat (SMS) yang tersedia di negara-negara tertentu. Situs ini berbasis di San Bruno, California dekat San Francisco, di mana situs ini pertama kali dibuat. Twitter juga memiliki server dan kantor di San Antonio, Texas dan Boston, Massachusetts.

Sejak dibentuk pada tahun 2006 oleh Jack Dorsey, Twitter telah mendapatkan popularitas di seluruh dunia dan saat ini memiliki lebih dari 100 juta pengguna. Hal ini kadang-kadang digambarkan sebagai "SMS dari internet".

Twitter memiliki logo berupa seekor burung berwarna biru yang bernama "Larry the "Bird", dinamai setelah nama seorang mantan pemain basket NBA, Larry Bird.

Dan ini dia 13 pengguna Twitter pertama di Indonesia :

1. Chris Prakoso akun twitter @mahadewa menggunakan akun twitter sejak 26-07-2006

2. Reza Fabyan akun twitter @Reza menggunakan akun twitter sejak 27-07-2006

3. Viking KARWUR akun twitter @vikingkarwur menggunakan akun twitter sejak 21-09-2006

4. Boy Avianto akun twitter @avianto menggunakan akun twitter sejak 26-10-2006

5. Ryan Koesuma akun twitter @koesuma menggunakan akun twitter sejak 07-11-2006

6. Richard Andrew G akun twitter @chaard menggunakan akun twitter sejak 08-11-2006

7. Thomas Arie Setiawan akun twitter @thomasarie menggunakan akun twitter sejak 10-11-2006

8. Enda Nasution akun twitter @enda menggunakan akun twitter sejak 13-11-2006

9. Satya Witoelar akun twitter @satya menggunakan akun twitter sejak 13-11-2006

10. Nita Yuanita akun twitter @nitayuanita menggunakan akun twitter sejak 13-11-2006

11. Hendy Irawan akun twitter @hendybippo menggunakan akun twitter sejak 24-11-2006

12. Mova Al 'Afghani akun twitter @movanet menggunakan akun twitter sejak 17-12-2006

13. Ybs akun twitter @basibanget menggunakan akun twitter sejak 25-12-2006

sumber : http://www.kaskus.co.id/thread/50894e0b1ed719a213000016/13-orang-indonesia-pertama-pengguna-twitter-serba-13/

Ebook Panduan Lengkap Microsoft Power Point 2007

Unik Informatika - Microsoft PowerPoint atau Microsoft Office PowerPoint adalah sebuah program komputer untuk presentasi yang dikembangkan oleh Microsoft di dalam paket aplikasi kantoran mereka, Microsoft Office, selain Microsoft Word, Excel, Access dan beberapa program lainnya. PowerPoint berjalan di atas komputer PC berbasis sistem operasi Microsoft Windows dan juga Apple Macintosh yang menggunakan sistem operasi Apple Mac OS, meskipun pada awalnya aplikasi ini berjalan di atas sistem operasi Xenix. 

Aplikasi ini sangat banyak digunakan, apalagi oleh kalangan perkantoran dan pebisnis, para pendidik, siswa, dan trainer. Ebook ini merupakan panduan lengkap MS Power Point 2007 Yang Terdiri Dari :

Paket Tutorial Pertama Pengenalan PowerPoint 2007 :

Menjalankan Microsoft PowerPoint 2007

Pengenalan Interface/Tampilan PowerPoint 2007

Mengaktifkan Menu–Menu Pada Microsoft PowerPoint 2007

Membuat Dokumen Baru Dalam Microsoft PowerPoint 2007

Menyimpan Dokumen Presentasi

Menutup Presentasi

Paket Tutorial Kedua Memulai Sebuah Presentasi :

Membuat Dokumen Baru Dalam Microsoft PowerPoint 2007

Menambahkan Slide Baru Dalam Presentasi

Menyimpan Dokumen Presentasi Dengan Nama Lain

Membuat Presentasi Menggunakan Template

Membuat Presentasi Menggunakan Template Microsoft Office Online

Paket Tutorial Ketiga Mengatur Tampilan Kerja Membuka File Dokumen Presentasi :

Pengenalan Beberapa Tampilan

Bekerja Dengan Tampilan Area Outline

Bekerja dengan Slide

Bekerja Dengan Tampilan Slide Sorter

Bekerja Dengan Tampilan Notes Pages

Paket Tutorial Keempat Mengatur Layout dan Themes :

Memilih Dan Mengganti Layout/ Tampilan Slide.

Menggunakan Themes Slide.

Menggunakan Multiple Themes Dalam Satu Presentasi

Mengedit Format Themes

Membuat Custom Themes Color Slide/ Warna Thames Baru

Paket Tutorial Kelima Memodifikasi Background Slide , Format Teks :

Mengganti Background Slide Dengan  Warna Solid.

Mengganti Background Slide Dengan Warna Gradien

Mengganti Background Slide Dengan Gambar/Picture

Mengatur Format Font dan Paragraf dalam Slide

Mengatur Jarak Spasi Antar Huruf/ Character

Mengatur Format Perataan Paragraf Dalam Slide

Paket Tutorial Keenam Memodifikasi Paragraf , Bullet and Numbering :

Mengatur Spasi Baris Paragraf dalam Slide.

Mengatur Indent/ Jarak Teks Dengan Text Boundaries

Menggunakan Format Bullets

Menggunakan Format Numbering

Paket Tutorial Ketujuh Memodifikasi Presentasi Dengan Menyisipkan Gambar, Audio Dan Video :

Menambahkan Objek Gambar Ke Dalam Slide

Memodifikasi Gambar Dalam Slide

Menggunakan Style Dan Efek Gambar

Menyisipkan File Video Ke Dalam Slide Presentasi

Menyisipkan File Suara/ Sound Ke Dalam Slide Presentasi

Paket Tutorial Kedelapan Menggunakan , Memodifikasi Slide Master :

Menggunakan Slide Master

Memodifikasi Huruf Dan Paragraf Menggunakan Slide Master

Menyisipkan Gambar/ Image Ke Dalam Slide Master

Membuat Slide Master Baru

Paket Tutorial Kesembilan Memodifikasi Presentasi Menggunakan Animasi :

Menggunakan Animasi Dalam Slide

Menggunakan Custom Animation

Menghapus Efek Animasi Slide

Membuat Slide Master Baru

Mengatur Durasi Tampilan Slide

Menggunakan Efek Perpindahan Slide

Paket Tutorial Kesepuluh Memodifikasi Presentasi Dengan Menyisipkan Table, Grafik, Dan Wordart :

Menyisipkan Tabel Dalam Slide Presentasi

Mengatur Format Tabel Dalam Presentasi

Menghapus Dan Menambah Baris & Kolom Tabel

Menambahkan Grafik Dalam Presentasi

Menambah Diagram Dalam Presentasi

Mengatur Format Diagram Dalam Presentasi

Paket Tutorial Kesebelas Menambah Dan Memodifikasi Gambar, Clip Art Dan Shapes :

Menambah Gambar Dalam Slide Presentasi

Menambah ClipArt Dalam Slide Persentasi

Menambahkan Objek Shape Dalam Dokumen Presentasi

Menambahkan Objek Text Box Dokumen Presentasi

Paket Tutorial Keduabelas Publikasi Dan Mencetak Dokumen Presentasi :

Menggabungkan Beberapa Slide Yang Akan di Publikasi

Membuat Tombol Aksi Dalam Slide

Membuat Link Menuju Slide Tetentu

Packing Presentasi Ke Dalam CD

Menyimpan File Presentasi Menjadi File Slide Show

Mencetak Slide Menjadi Hand Out

Link Download :

Download Disini...

Soya-noia could Destroy-ya!

From Mark Sisson's Weekend Link Love this past weekend comes this:  Soy protein present in egg yolks and chicken tissues.  Ruh roh!!  Mark writes:

It’s confirmed: meat and eggs from soy-fed chickens contain soy isoflavones. The title of the article – “Soy protein present in egg yolks and chicken tissues” – isn’t quite accurate, but soy isoflavones are often phytoestrogens and thus somewhat concerning.

Boys are reaching puberty younger than ever before, a new study shows, but “it’s unclear why.” Perhaps the phytoestrogens from soy-fed chicken products are involved?

Read more »

Sandy Report

Hope this post finds everyone safe and having not lost much in the wake of this massive storm.  I was semi-awake most of the night.  Our power went off a few times, and cycled on and off for a couple hours, but luckily it held.  There were no generators to be had as of early Friday afternoon ... this is something we need to get because all I could think of was our freezers full of food being lost.  

Being at relatively high elevation and far enough inland, I wasn't worried about water too much, more about wind and our big tree.   One fairly big limb came down on our shed which then blew apart ... Not sure if it can be saved, but it is what it is, and relatively minor.  Quite a few smaller limbs came down as well.  Although it makes for less privacy, I'm happy our neighbor had some limbs on his tree  trimmed recently.  Still, something hit his house and ripped his fascia board off.  

According to the hubs, we have a chicken in the neighborhood that clucked its way through our back yard.   (This would make Joel Salatin happy, but not the town officials.)   

My folks are without power so I expect company later since it was just the line to their house it won't be top priority.  One neighbor lost a car to a falling limb.  We'll take our tour of the neighborhood later.  One good thing is there'll be lots of free firewood to be had.

How'd you fare?

good morning!!  right now, i am totally digging dark nails...mine are painted the color of the girl's above.  i hope y'all had a wonderful weekend.  ours was filled w/ lots of halloween activities!

*images courtesy of design darling, ciruelo interiors, apartment therapy, anthropologie, abundance

Jenis/Macam Sekolah Pada Zaman Kolonialisme Belanda Di Indonesia

Kali ini You'll Never Walk Alone akan memberikan informasi tentang Jenis/Macam Sekolah Pada Zaman Kolonialisme Belanda Di Indonesia. Pada saat penjajahan belanda dulu di Indonesia sempat didirikan berbagai jenis sekolah-sekolah Belanda yang dibagi-bagi menjadi beraneka ragam jenis, yaitu :

1. ELS (Eurospeesch Lagere School) atau disebut juga HIS (Hollandsch Inlandsch School) sekolah dasar dengan lama studi sekitar 7 tahun. Sekolah ini menggonakan sistem dan metode seperti sekolah di negeri belanda.

2. HBS (Hogere Burger School) yang merupakan sekolah lanjutan tinggi pertama untuk warga negara pribumi dengan lama belajar 5 tahun. AMS (Algemeen Metddelbare School) mirip HBS, namun setingkat SLTA/SMA.

3. Sekolah Bumi Putera (Inlandsch School) dengan bahasa pengantar belajarnya adalah bahasa daerah dan lama study selama 5 tahun.

4. Sekolah Desa (Volksch School) dengan bahasa pengantar belajar bahasa daerah sekitar dan lama belajar adalah 3 tahun.

5. Sekolah lanjutan untuk sekolah desa (Vervolksch School) belajar dengan bahasa pengantarnya bahasa daerah dan masa belajar selama 2 tahun.

6. Sekolah Peralihan (Schakel School) yaitu sekolah lanjutan untuk sekolah desa dengan lama belajar 5 tahun dan berbahasa belanda dalam kegiatan belajar mengajar.

7. MULO Sekolah lanjutan tingkat pertama singkatan dari Meer Uitgebreid Lager Onderwijs dengan tingkatan yang sama dengan smp / sltp pada saat jika dibandingkan dengan masa kini.

8. Stovia (School Tot Opleiding Van Inlansche Artsen) yang sering disebut juga sebagai Sekolah Dokter Jawa dengan masa belajar selama 7 tahun sebagai lanjutan MULO.

Tema Windows 7 CTX ROBOT DARK V.2

Tema Windows 7 CTX ROBOT DARK

Limit Komputer | CTX ROBOT DARK merupakan tema windows 7 versi kedua dari CTX ROBOT yang pernah saya bagikan beberapa bulan yang lalu. namun tema versi kedua ini sangat berbeda dari sebelumnya karena terdapat perbedaan warna yang begitu jauh. namun fitur-fitrunya hampir sama dari versi sebelumnya. berikut beberapa kelebihannya

1. Start menu transparan
2. Icon start menu CTX ROBOT DARK
3. Toolbar dark style
4. Warna yang elegan
5. Wallpaper keren
6. Kursor CTX ROBOT
7. Full Glass 

Tertarik?

Blood Sugar 140: Diabetic Neuropathy, Is it All About Hyperglycemia?

Continuing on in this series dealing with the neuropathy study from which the following statement has been repeated regarding blood glucose levels:  

Nerve Damage Occurs when Blood Sugars Rise Over 140 mg/dl After Meals  (as stated by Ruhl , Jaminet (Kindle Locations 712-716), and Kresser.)

At the risk of repetition, this does seem to have originated with Jenny Ruhl's interpretations of this study wherein 50% of 72 individuals with neuropathy were diagnosed as IGT having a BG level over 140 mg/dL at the 2-hour mark of an OGTT.   The IGT group was also more likely to have painful sensory symptoms than the roughly one-third who were normoglycemic (the remaining group were frank diabetic).

Read more »

Mark Sisson: It's All About the Insulin

If you’ve forgotten everything you ever learned in biology, just remember this and own it: carbohydrate controls insulin; insulin controls fat storage. 

It's All About Insulin (Well, at Least 80 Percent of It): Eighty percent of your ability to achieve body composition goals is determined by your diet—essentially, your ability to moderate insulin production so you can access and burn stored body fat for energy, while preserving or building muscle. Insulin is an important hormone that transports nutrients into cells for storage. When the delicate insulin balance is abused by habitually consuming too many carbs, cells become insulin resistant; more fat is stored and it becomes increasingly difficult to burn. This sets the stage for the development of serious conditions like Metabolic Syndrome, type 2 diabetes, and heart disease. Synthesis of testosterone and human growth hormone are hindered by excessive insulin production, creating an artificially accelerated aging process. There are also serious immediate drawbacks to consuming high-carb snacks or meals. The sugar high-insulin release-stress response cycle causes problems with fatigue, mental focus, mood swings, and jitters, resulting in the familiar condition of burnout. The regulation of insulin production is perhaps the most important takeaway message of the Primal Blueprint for preventing obesity and many modern health problems.

Read more »

A Great Quote

This comes from the Reebok/Crossfit page on Facebook.  In response to a photo of Neal Maddox eating a donut, Tom Inkel writes:

One of the rewards of a good diet, fitness level, and self-awareness is knowing what licenses like this that you can take without impacting your goals. I feel bad for people trying to live blindly by some set of rigid rules for life that they've conjured up off CrossFit/Paleo websites. As humans, we have a limited pool of free will/willpower. (Read Dan John's book sometime: Never Let Go.) If you use that willpower up on unnecessary rigidity, two things happen: (1) other parts of your life fall apart to compensate (and eventually, your rule system itself); (2) you alienate from CrossFit/Paleo everyone watching who can't make those same commitments (due to things like a crazy schedule, kids, sickness, etc.), because you've just told them that they aren't good enough for CrossFit/Paleo because they can't do it "right." That's tragic. Especially since, someday, it might be you with the new kid, and you're trapped by your own logic into not being a "good" CrossFitter. In summary: Rules are just tools. Don't let them blind you to goals. That's not CrossFit or health; that's religious fanaticism. Instead: Start with specific accomplishments in mind; measure your progress regularly; and only then, tailor rules as necessary.

I know there probably aren't too many CrossFitters reading this, but there are lots of dietary/lifestyle absolutists out there for whom we can switch out the CrossFit/Paleo label and this would speak to you.  I think these are words of wisdom -- paraphrase:  Don't use your energies up on complying with self-imposed rigid rules.  

There is too much emphasis, IMO, placed on what we should not do, why we shouldn't do it, and the necessary amount of contrition that must be expressed if we are impure in our ways ... or worse yet occasionally engage in the "don'ts" unapologetically.   Life is too short.

Food Reward Fridays

Each Friday, I'm going to post a picture of a modern food so ridiculous it makes you want to laugh and cry at the same time.  I'm doing this for two reasons:

1. To raise awareness about the unhealthy, fattening foods that are taking over global food culture.  These are highly rewarding, highly palatable, energy-dense foods that drive people to eat in the absence of hunger, and continue eating beyond calorie needs.  In many cases, the foods have been specifically designed to maximize "craveability" and palatability.
2. Because it's funny.

Without further ado... the first lucky winner:

Read more »

Marketers' Systemic Influence over Ostensibly Scholarly, Peer-Reviewed Publications: the Medtronic Infuse BMP-2 Example

On the heels of our discussion of how one pharmaceutical company employed a "publications strategy" to commission and control randomized controlled trials to serve marketing purposes, a US Senate committee has released a report about how a device/ biotechnology company "influenced the content of articles in peer-reviewed scientific publications to present... [its product] in the best possible light."

The report was summarized by the Wall Street Journal,

A report by the Senate Finance Committee based on thousands of documents it subpoenaed from Medtronic Inc raises new questions about the integrity of the medical research underpinning one of the medical-device maker's products.

Medtronic was 'heavily involved in drafting, editing and shaping the content of medical journal articles' about the product—a bone-growth protein used in spine surgery called Infuse—even as it was paying the physicians who wrote those articles a total of $210 million for unrelated work, the Senate report alleges.

In one instance, a Medtronic employee recommended to one of the physicians not publishing a list of side effects associated with Infuse in a 2005 journal article, company emails show. Medtronic marketing officials also urged inserting language into other journal articles touting the use of Infuse as better for patients than using bone harvested from their pelvises because of the pain associated with the latter, other company documents show.

Medtronic's influence extended to preparing a physician's 2002 speech to a panel advising the Food and Drug Administration on whether to approve the drug, the report alleges. The physician's disclosure to the panel at the time suggested his testimony was independent, but the company had in fact helped him draft it and paid him as a consultant the previous year, company documents show. Medtronic later hired the physician as an executive.

In response to the Senate report, Medtronic issued a statement saying it 'vigorously' disagreed with any suggestion that 'it improperly influenced or authored any of the peer-reviewed published manuscripts.' The company also denied that it 'intended to under-report adverse events' associated with Infuse.

The Extent of the Problem

The report itself is available here. It is worth discussing some of its sections about how the company is alleged to have influenced the peer-reviewed, scholarly clinical literature in more detail.

First, it asserted that "Medtronic employees, including employees working for its marketing department, collaborated with physician authors, many of whom had significant financial relationships with Medtronic, to draft" 11 specific articles in the literature published between 2002 and 2009.

Obfuscating Adverse Effects

The report provided detail about specific instances in which Medtronic employees appeared to influence publication to further marketing objectives.  The first was apparently to cloud discussion of adverse effects of its product [italics added for emphasis]:

documents indicate that a Medtronic employee involved in editing a draft of the 2005 Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery (JBJS) article by Burkus, et al. about a similar InFuse procedure involving allograft bone (a cage made from donated bone rather than the FDA-approved titanium), recommended that 'significant detail' concerning adverse event  data should not be published.

On June 16, 2004, Dr. Julie Bearcroft, Director of Technology Management in Medtronic’s Biologics Marketing Department, wrote an e-mail to other Medtronic employees, commenting on a draft of the study, 'I have made some significant changes to this document (some at the request of Dr. Burkus) both in format and content.  In this e-mail, she asked: 'How much information should we provide relative to adverse events? . . . You will see my [note] in the attached document but I don’t think significant detail on this section is warranted.'  The referenced note in the draft article stated: 'I don’t believe we want to report in the same manner as we do in IDE studies. I personally think it is appropriate to simply report the adverse events were equivalent in the two groups without the detail.' According to an internal e-mail, the adverse events were observed in the trial and formatted in a detailed table. But following the advice of Bearcroft, this table of adverse events was not included in the published paper.

On July 3, 2004, after Medtronic edited the paper, Dr. Burkus sent a draft to his co-authors writing that 'this manuscript documents the superiority in clinical and radiographic outcomes with the use of rhBMP2 in a study population of only 133 patients.'

According to the Carragee et al. Spine Journal article published in 2011, the 2005 JBJS article 'reported no complications, such as end-plate fracture, collapse, and implant migration associated with rhBMP–2 despite the clear radiographic findings in at least the one presented case.  The e-mail exchange indicates that, in addition to Medtronic editing the manuscript without attribution, the company was recommending that the article omit a complete accounting of adverse event data, including serious adverse event data that were already considered a documented concern by FDA in similar application.
 
These types of adverse events were disclosed in Table V of a 2009 follow-up article concerning the original IDE study. Studies published in 2007 revealed that InFuse is associated with 'a clinically important early inflammatory and osteoclastic effect of the rhBMP–2 in soft tissue and bone, respectively.  In other words, Medtronic recommended against including information in the study that was ultimately revealed to have an association between In-Fuse and weakening that could lead to collapse of the bone and implant and required that patients undergo additional surgery.

Note that in this example, someone explicitly associated with marketing apparently edited a draft of a scholarly article, suggested that detail about adverse effects of the company's product be omitted, and that the published article in fact omitted such detail.

The report also included an example in which another Medtronic employee apparently tried to "tone down" the discussion of adverse effects of the product, but did so too late to influence the published version. 

Emphasizing the Adverse Effects of an Alternative to Using the Company's Product

On the other hand, the report also included an example in which it alleged that a company employee suggested adding emphasis to the drawbacks of using a management strategy that did not include use of the company's product.

Documents show that Medtronic edited draft publications to stress the pain patients experienced from undergoing a bone graft procedure instead of receiving InFuse. Medtronic markets InFuse as a less painful alternative to bone graft procedures for patients undergoing spinal fusion surgery.

In particular,

After receiving a draft of an early InFuse study 52 to review in October 2001, Medtronic’s Neil Beals, whose 'primary job responsibility was to manage Biologics marketing programs and initiatives,'  recommended that the physician authors of the study emphasize pain experienced by patients who received the bone graft. The patients were divided into an investigative group that received InFuse and a control group that received a bone graft obtained from the iliac crest of their pelvis.  An October 31, 2001 e-mail shows that Beals suggested to Dr. Burkus that 'a bigger deal should be made of elimination of donor site pain with INFUSE . . . so that ‘equivalent’ results aren’t received as a let down.'   Again, after reviewing a later draft of the study, Beals asked Dr. Burkus on March 8, 2002, 'would it be appropriate to make a bigger deal out of donor site pain and include more discussion and references?  Subsequently, a sentence was inserted at the end of a later draft, and included in the published version of the article, that read, 'The use of rhBMP–2 is associated with high fusion rates without the need for harvesting bone graft from the iliac crest and exposing the patient to the adverse effects associated with that procedure.'

Medtronic also sought to include discussion of long-term pain in the Baskin, et. al. 2003 paper on InFuse in the cervical spine. In a draft of the publication that was being circulated on August 30, 2002, the authors wrote, '[b]y 12 months after surgery, the patients [sic] graft-site pain had resolved . . . and no patients complained about the graft-site appearance.'  Beals inserted comments after this sentence stating, 'ALTHOUGH THE PATIENTS DID NOT COMPLAIN ABOUT APPEARANCE DIDN’T SOME STILL EXPERIENCE PAIN AT THE DONOR SITE? SEEMS LIKE RESIDUAL EFFECTS OF DONOR SITE SHOULD BE NOTED.  [sic] [emphasis in original]. In an e-mail to his colleague, Beals wrote, 'I would also add in more discussion on donor site pain and need for osteogenetic graft material (plant seed of doubt for just using allograft by itself ).  A review of the final published article reveals that, after Beals made the suggestion to emphasize pain at the bone graft site, a sentence was added in the final version of the article that read,  '. . . even at the 24-month follow-up assessment, some patients continued to experience residual pain at the donor site, and rated the appearance of the site as only fair.'

Note that in these two examples, another marketing employee edited drafts of two scholarly articles, suggested that more emphasis be put on supposed adverse effects of the procedure that the articles compared to the procedure which used the company's product, and that the two articles included such emphasis. 

Deceptive Response to Peer Reviewers' Criticisms of Apparent Bias 

Finally, the report included an instance in which a company employee managed correspondence between an article's ostensible first author and journal editors to try to defend wording which reviewers had criticized for bias in favor of the company's product.

In summary,

E-mail exchanges between Dr. Burkus and Medtronic employees regarding a study of InFuse utilizing the posterior lumbar interbody fusion (PLIF) technique and published in The Spine Journal in 2004 demonstrates that Medtronic employees not only edited the draft manuscript to include comments supportive of InFuse,  they also covertly participated in the peer-review process by drafting responses to peer-reviewers on behalf of the physician authors named on the paper.

In particular, one employee, Rick Treharne, previously identified as "Senior Vice President of Clinical and Regulatory Affairs," wrote a very positive summary statement for the article's discussion section:

In a January 10, 2003, e-mail to Dr. Burkus, Rick Treharne wrote, 'In looking over the data, I was impressed with how well the BMP patients actually did. So much so that I added a few paragraphs at the end that you may not agree with.' 

However, the reviewers were skeptical,

One reviewer wrote: 'Unless the authors can discuss the results of this study in an unbiased manner, which they have been unable to do in its present form, this data should not be published.'  Another reviewer wrote: 'The manuscript is full of biased statements that are a reflection of the data evaluators—the company that markets the product.'  That reviewer recommended a discussion of potential bias in the text of the paper writing,  'As it stands it is an advertisement for a specific product without significant scientific merit.'

Then, Medtronic employees then took over the process of responding to this review, to wit,

E-mail correspondence on May 28, 2003, indicates that Medtronic’s Rick Treharne wrote and sent Dr. Burkus a draft letter to Dr. Tom Mayer, Editor-in-Chief of The Spine Journal, to address concerns raised by orthopedic surgeons tasked with peer-reviewing the submitted PLIF paper. A subsequent e-mail by Julie Bearcroft notes that she and Dr. Burkus collaborated further on the response to the peer-reviewers of this study during a Lumbar Spine Study Group event.

In response to the peer-reviewers’ concerns about bias in the manuscript, the response letter seemingly misled The Spine Journal by stating that 'To help eliminate any potential bias, only one of the co-authors was a clinical investigator—the other three were independent reviewers of all the data. Since these data are taken from a clinical IDE study sponsored by a company, only the company would have all the data in its database—data that is reviewed by FDA auditors. We don’t believe any discussion of bias is needed for the text.'  By the end of 2003, 'independent reviewers' Dr. Haid and Dr. Burkus would have received $7,793,000 and $722,000 from Medtronic, respectively. This draft letter, written at least in part by Medtronic on behalf of Dr. Burkus, did not disclose the company’s role in directly editing the paper nor did it disclose the magnitude of financial payments made to the supposed 'independent reviewers.'

Thus, in this case, a marketing employee apparently edited a draft of a scholarly article to exaggerate benefits of the company's product, directly adding text to the article, and when peer-reviewers suggested that the article showed bias towards the company's product, apparently two employees ghost-wrote a response letter that claimed that certain authors were "independent reviewers," obfuscating that they had previously received large payments from the company.

Summary

In 2010, we noted reporting that suggested Medtronic had paid huge amounts, millions of dollars, to spine surgeons for reasons that were not clear.  Later that year, we noted further reporting that surgeons who were getting amounts sometimes exceeding one million dollars from Medtronic were not disclosing these payments in scholarly articles about the company's BMP-2 product.

Now there appears a US Senate committee report alleging that Medtronic marketing employees systematically influenced the writing, editing, and publication of multiple ostensibly scholarly articles, ostensibly written by doctors, to favor the Medtronic In-Fuse BMP-2 product.  This adds to previous case studies suggesting that pharmaceutical, biotechnology, device and probably other kinds of company marketers may try to systematically manipulate the design, implementation, analysis, and dissemination of supposedly scholarly and unbiased clinical research to more effectively market their products and services.  

This is discouraging to a former full-time academic physician who now realizes that the difficulties I encountered getting my manuscripts published, given that they written entirely by academic investigators and uninfluenced by marketers, may have been due to the cacophony of competition from marketing influenced texts professionally promoted to journals to serve vested interests.

This is more discouraging to a proponent of evidence-based medicine who believes that medical decisions ought to be informed by critical review of clinical research obtained by systematic search in order to weigh the benefits and harms of management options,accounting for patients' values.  When that clinical research was being deliberately influenced and biased by people selling goods and services, it is not clear that even rigorous critical review will distill the truth from the injected bias.  Yet if physicians cannot depend on published research to guide their decision making for individual patients, what can they depend on?

I conclude as I did my last post,...   Thus health care professionals, policy makers, researchers, and the interested public need to be even more skeptical about arguments made to promote innovative treatments and other clinical interventions.  However, it is not clear that even rigorous skepticism can defend the integrity of evidence based medicine from marketing disguised as clinical research.

Going forward, we must consider erecting an impregnable barrier between clinical research and those whose primary interest is to make money by selling health care goods and services.  If we do not do that, we will forever need to worry that we really have no idea what "works in medicine," and whether any particular test, treatment, or program provides benefits that outweigh its harms. 

Blood Sugar 140: Do Postprandial Spikes Glycate?

I've got at least one more post in this series directly relating to the neuropathy study to which concerns over BG levels over 140 mg/dL and nerve damage can be traced.

This post is actually going to be rather short.  In the study, they found that half of those with neuropathy were diagnosed with IGT having a BG level over 140 mg/dL at the 2 hr mark on an OGTT.  An additional 18% were diabetic and 32% normoglycemic.  So the incidence of IGT was roughly three times as prevalent in this neuropathic population as in the general population.  Further, the IGT group had more painful sensory symptoms than the normoglycemic group.  But here's the thing:

Read more »

13 Rekor Yang Dipegang Oleh Kapal Nabi Nuh A.S

Unik Informatika - Allah memerintahkan Nabi Nuh as. untuk membuat bahtera. Bersama para pengikutnya, Nabi Nuh as mengumpulkan paku dan menebang kayu besar dari pohon yang ia tanam selama 40 tahun. Melalui wahyu-Nya, Allah SWT membimbing Nuh membuat bahtera yang kuat untuk menghadapi serangan topan dan banjir. Berikut rekor dunia yang dipegang oleh Bahtera Nuh :

1. Bahtera Nuh Dipimpin Oleh Nahkoda Tertua Di Dunia (berusia 600 th).

Ibnu Abbas menceritakan Bahwa nabi Nuh diutus pada kaumnya ketika berumur 480 tahun. Masa kenabiannya adalah 120 tahun dan berdakwah selama 5 abad. Dia mengarungi banjir ketika ia berumur 600 tahun dan kemudian setelah banjir ia hidup selama 350 tahun.

2. Bahtera Nuh Merupakan Kapal Terbesar Di Dunia Yang Terbuat Dari Kayu.

Ibnu Abbas menceritakan Bahwa Suatu ketika Nabi Isa menghidupkan Ham bin Nuh dan bertanya kepadanya kenapa rambutnya beruban, ia menjawab dia meninggal di saat usia muda karena ketakutannya ketika banjir. Ia berkata bahwa panjang kapal Nuh adalah 1200 Kubit dan lebarnya 600 Kubit dan mempunyai 3 lapisan.

3. Bahtera Nuh Merupakan Alat Angkutan Laut Pertama Di Dunia.

Allah membimbing Nuh membuat bahtera yang kuat untuk menghadapi serangan topan dan banjir. Bahtera Nuh dianggap merupakan alat angkutan laut pertama di dunia.

4. Bahtera Nuh Merupakan Alat Angkutan Laut Pertama Di Dunia Yang Terbuat Dari Kayu.

Bersama para pengikutnya, Nuh mengumpulkan paku dan menebang kayu besar dari pohon yang ia tanam selama 40 tahun.

5. Bahtera Nuh Merupakan Kapal Angkut Bertingkat Pertama Di Dunia (3 tingkat).

Panjang kapal Nuh adalah 1200 Kubit dan lebarnya 600 Kubit dan mempunyai 3 lapisan. Tingkat pertama diletakkan binatang-binatang liar dan yang sudah dijinakkan, tingkat kedua ditempatkan manusiaingkat ketiga untuk burung-burung.

6. Bahtera Nuh Merupakan Kapal Yang Belayar Tertinggi Dari Dasar Laut.

Menurut Al Qur’an, bahtera Nuh telah mendarat di Bukit Judi. Ada pendapat yang menunjukkan suatu gunung di wilayah Kurdi atau tepatnya dibagian selatan Armenia, ada pendapat lain dari Wyatt Archeological Research, bukit tersebut terletak di wilayah Turkistan Iklim Butan, Timur laut pulau yang oleh orang-orang Arab disebut sebagai Jazirah Ibnu Umar (Tafsir al-Mishbah).

7. Bahtera Nuh Adalah Kapal Anti Topan Dan Banjir Pertama Di Dunia.

Allah membimbing Nuh membuat bahtera yang kuat untuk menghadapi serangan topan dan banjir.

8. Bahtera Nuh Adalah Kapal Pertama Yang Berlayar Tanpa Kompas.

Setelah bahtera itu selesai, Kitab Kejadian menggambarkan bahwa air merendam bumi selama 150 hari lamanya dan setelah itu air mulai surut.

9. Bahtera Nuh Dinahkodai Bukan Ahli Ilmu Kelautan Dan Perbintangan.

Nuh adalah seorang nabi yang diceritakan dalam Taurat, Alkitab, dan Al-Quran. Nuh diangkat menjadi nabi sekitar tahun 3650 SM. Diperkirakan ia tinggal di wilayah Selatan Irak modern.

10. Bahtera Nuh Adalah Satu-Satunya Kapal Angkut Dengan Penumpang Paling Sedikit Pertama Di Dunia.

Ibnu Thabari menceritakan setelah kapal berlabuh di pegunungan Ararat, ia kemudian membangun suatukota di daerah Ararat (Qarda) disuatu areal yang termasuk Mesopotamia dan menamakan kota tersebut Themanon (Kota delapan Puluh) karena kota tersebut dibangun oleh orang yang beriman yang berjumlah 80 orang.

11. Bahtera Nuh Adalah Kapal Angkut Yang Mengangkut Jenis Binatang Berpasangan Terbanyak Di Dunia.

Nuh memiliki 4 anak laki-laki: Kan’an, Sem, Ham, dan Yafet. Menurut kitab Kejadian, pada jamannya terjadi air bah yang menutupi seluruh bumi; hanya ia sekeluarga (istrinya, ketiga anaknya, dan ketiga menantunya) dan binatang-binatang yang ada di dalam bahtera Nuh yang selamat dari air bah tersebut.

12. Bahtera Nuh Satu-Satunya Kapal Yang Mendarat Di Gunung.

Berdasarkan foto yang dihasilkan dari gunung Ararat, menunjukkan sebuah perahu yang sangat besar diperkirakan memilik luas 7.546 kaki dengan panjang 500 kaki, lebar 83 kaki dan tinggi 50 kaki dan masih ada tiga tingkat lagi diatasnya.

13. Bahtera Nuh Adalah Kapal Yang Mengarungi Banjir Terlama Di Dunia.

Kitab Kejadian menggambarkan bahwa air merendam bumi selama 150 hari lamanya dan setelah itu air mulai surut. Nuh menunggu hingga bumi benar-benar kering sebelum membuka pintu bahtera.

sumber : http://www.kaskus.co.id/thread/508953de1d76080f4d000004/13-rekor-dunia-yang-dipegang-oleh-kapal-nabi-nuh-as-serba-13/

Demokrasi

Demokrasi adalah suatu bentuk pemerintahan politik yang kekuasaan pemerintahannya berasal dari rakyat, baik secara langsung (demokrasi langsung) atau melalui perwakilan (demokrasi perwakilan). Istilah ini berasal dari bahasa Yun

ani δημοκρατία – (dēmokratía) "kekuasaan rakyat", yang dibentuk dari kata δῆμος (dêmos) "rakyat" dan κράτος (Kratos) "kekuasaan", merujuk pada sistem politik yang muncul pada pertengahan abad ke-5 dan ke-4 SM di negara kota Yunani Kuno, khususnya Athena, menyusul revolusi rakyat pada tahun 508 SM. Istilah demokrasi diperkenalkan pertama kali oleh Aristoteles sebagai suatu bentuk pemerintahan, yaitu pemerintahan yang menggariskan bahwa kekuasaan berada di tangan orang banyak (rakyat). Abraham Lincoln dalam pidato Gettysburgnya mendefinisikan demokrasi sebagai "pemerintahan dari rakyat, oleh rakyat, dan untuk rakyat".Hal ini berarti kekuasaan tertinggi dalam sistem demokrasi ada di tangan rakyat dan rakyat mempunyai hak, kesempatan dan suara yang sama di dalam mengatur kebijakan pemerintahan. Melalui demokrasi, keputusan yang diambil berdasarkan suara terbanyak.

Demokrasi terbentuk menjadi suatu sistem pemerintahan sebagai respon kepada masyarakat umum di Athena yang ingin menyuarakan pendapat mereka. Dengan adanya sistem demokrasi, kekuasaan absolut satu pihak melalui tirani, kediktatoran dan pemerintahan otoriter lainnya dapat dihindari. Demokrasi memberikan kebebasan berpendapat bagi rakyat, namun pada masa awal terbentuknya belum semua orang dapat mengemukakan pendapat mereka melainkan hanya laki-laki saja. Sementara itu, wanita, budak, orang asing dan penduduk yang orang tuanya bukan orang Athena tidak memiliki hak untuk itu.

Di Indonesia, pergerakan nasional juga mencita-citakan pembentukan negara demokrasi yang berwatak anti-feodalisme dan anti-imperialisme, dengan tujuan membentuk masyarakat sosialis. Bagi Gus Dur, landasan demokrasi adalah keadilan, dalam arti terbukanya peluang kepada semua orang, dan berarti juga otonomi atau kemandirian dari orang yang bersangkutan untuk mengatur hidupnya, sesuai dengan apa yang dia inginkan. Masalah keadilan menjadi penting, dalam arti setiap orang mempunyai hak untuk menentukan sendiri jalan hidupnya, tetapi hak tersebut harus dihormati dan diberikan peluang serta pertolongan untuk mencapai hal tersebut.

Sejarah demokrasi

Sebelum istilah demokrasi ditemukan oleh penduduk Yunani, bentuk sederhana dari demokrasi telah ditemukan sejak 4000 SM di Mesopotamia.Ketika itu, bangsa Sumeria memiliki beberapa negara kota yang independen. Di setiap negara kota tersebut para rakyat seringkali berkumpul untuk mendiskusikan suatu permasalahan dan keputusan pun diambil berdasarkan konsensus atau mufakat.

Barulah pada 508 SM, penduduk Athena di Yunani membentuk sistem pemerintahan yang merupakan cikal bakal dari demokrasi modern. Yunani kala itu terdiri dari 1,500 negara kota (poleis) yang kecil dan independen. Negara kota tersebut memiliki sistem pemerintahan yang berbeda-beda, ada yang oligarki, monarki, tirani dan juga demokrasi. Diantaranya terdapat Athena, negara kota yang mencoba sebuah model pemerintahan yang baru masa itu yaitu demokrasi langsung. Penggagas dari demokrasi tersebut pertama kali adalah Solon, seorang penyair dan negarawan. Paket pembaruan konstitusi yang ditulisnya pada 594 SM menjadi dasar bagi demokrasi di Athena namun Solon tidak berhasil membuat perubahan. Demokrasi baru dapat tercapai seratus tahun kemudian oleh Kleisthenes, seorang bangsawan Athena. Dalam demokrasi tersebut, tidak ada perwakilan dalam pemerintahan sebaliknya setiap orang mewakili dirinya sendiri dengan mengeluarkan pendapat dan memilih kebijakan. Namun dari sekitar 150,000 penduduk Athena, hanya seperlimanya yang dapat menjadi rakyat dan menyuarakan pendapat mereka.

Demokrasi ini kemudian dicontoh oleh bangsa Romawi pada 510 SM hingga 27 SM. Sistem demokrasi yang dipakai adalah demokrasi perwakilan dimana terdapat beberapa perwakilan dari bangsawan di Senat dan perwakilan dari rakyat biasa di Majelis.

Bentuk-bentuk demokrasi

Secara umum terdapat dua bentuk demokrasi yaitu demokrasi langsung dan demokrasi perwakilan.

Demokrasi langsung

Demokrasi langsung merupakan suatu bentuk demokrasi dimana setiap rakyat memberikan suara atau pendapat dalam menentukan suatu keputusan. Dalam sistem ini, setiap rakyat mewakili dirinya sendiri dalam memilih suatu kebijakan sehingga mereka memiliki pengaruh langsung terhadap keadaan politik yang terjadi. Sistem demokrasi langsung digunakan pada masa awal terbentuknya demokrasi di Athena dimana ketika terdapat suatu permasalahan yang harus diselesaikan, seluruh rakyat berkumpul untuk membahasnya. Di era modern sistem ini menjadi tidak praktis karena umumnya populasi suatu negara cukup besar dan mengumpulkan seluruh rakyat dalam satu forum merupakan hal yang sulit. Selain itu, sistem ini menuntut partisipasi yang tinggi dari rakyat sedangkan rakyat modern cenderung tidak memiliki waktu untuk mempelajari semua permasalahan politik negara.

Demokrasi perwakilan

Dalam demokrasi perwakilan, seluruh rakyat memilih perwakilan melalui pemilihan umum untuk menyampaikan pendapat dan mengambil keputusan bagi mereka.

Prinsip-prinsip demokrasi

Rakyat dapat secara bebas menyampaikan aspirasinya dalam kebijakan politik dan sosial.

Prinsip demokrasi dan prasyarat dari berdirinya negara demokrasi telah terakomodasi dalam konstitusi Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia.Prinsip-prinsip demokrasi, dapat ditinjau dari pendapat Almadudi yang kemudian dikenal dengan "soko guru demokrasi".Menurutnya, prinsip-prinsip demokrasi adalah:

1. Kedaulatan rakyat;
2. Pemerintahan berdasarkan persetujuan dari yang diperintah;
3. Kekuasaan mayoritas;
4. Hak-hak minoritas;
5. Jaminan hak asasi manusia;
6. Pemilihan yang bebas dan jujur;
7. Persamaan di depan hukum;
8. Proses hukum yang wajar;
9. Pembatasan pemerintah secara konstitusional;
10. Pluralisme sosial, ekonomi, dan politik;
11. Nilai-nilai toleransi, pragmatisme, kerja sama, dan mufakat.
12. Asas pokok demokrasi

Gagasan pokok atau gagasan dasar suatu pemerintahan demokrasi adalah pengakuan hakikat manusia, yaitu pada dasarnya manusia mempunyai kemampuan yang sama dalam hubungan sosial. Berdasarkan gagasan dasar tersebut terdapat dua asas pokok demokrasi, yaitu:

Pengakuan partisipasi rakyat dalam pemerintahan, misalnya pemilihan wakil-wakil rakyat untuk lembaga perwakilan rakyat secara langsung, umum, bebas, dan rahasia serta jujur dan adil; dan
Pengakuan hakikat dan martabat manusia, misalnya adanya tindakan pemerintah untuk melindungi hak-hak asasi manusia demi kepentingan bersama.
 

Ciri-ciri pemerintahan demokratis
 

Pemilihan umum secara langsung mencerminkan sebuah demokrasi yang baik

Dalam perkembangannya, demokrasi menjadi suatu tatanan yang diterima dan dipakai oleh hampir seluruh negara di dunia. Ciri-ciri suatu pemerintahan demokrasi adalah sebagai berikut:

1. Adanya keterlibatan warga negara (rakyat) dalam pengambilan keputusan politik, baik langsung maupun tidak langsung (perwakilan).
2. Adanya pengakuan, penghargaan, dan perlindungan terhadap hak-hak asasi rakyat (warga negara).
3. Adanya persamaan hak bagi seluruh warga negara dalam segala bidang.
4. Adanya lembaga peradilan dan kekuasaan kehakiman yang independen sebagai alat penegakan hukum
5. Adanya kebebasan dan kemerdekaan bagi seluruh warga negara.
6. Adanya pers (media massa) yang bebas untuk menyampaikan informasi dan mengontrol perilaku dan kebijakan pemerintah.
7. Adanya pemilihan umum untuk memilih wakil rakyat yang duduk di lembaga perwakilan rakyat.
8. Adanya pemilihan umum yang bebas, jujur, adil untuk menentukan (memilih) pemimpin negara dan pemerintahan serta anggota lembaga perwakilan rakyat.
9. Adanya pengakuan terhadap perbedaan keragamaan (suku, agama, golongan, dan sebagainya).