Sejarah Internet

Pada awalnya Internet merupakan jaringan komputer yang dibentuk oleh Departemen Pertahanan Amerika Serikat di tahun 1969, melalui proyek ARPA yang disebut ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network), di mana mereka mendemonstrasikan bagaimana dengan hardware dan software komputer yang berbasis UNIX, kita bisa melakukan komunikasi dalam jarak yang tidak terhingga melalui saluran telepon. Proyek ARPANET merancang bentuk jaringan, kehandalan, seberapa besar informasi dapat dipindahkan, dan akhirnya semua standar yang mereka tentukan menjadi cikal bakal pembangunan protokol baru yang sekarang dikenal sebagai TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).

Tujuan awal dibangunnya proyek itu adalah untuk keperluan militer. Pada saat itu Departemen Pertahanan Amerika Serikat (US Department of Defense) membuat sistem jaringan komputer yang tersebar dengan menghubungkan komputer di daerah-daerah vital untuk mengatasi masalah bila terjadi serangan nuklir dan untuk menghindari terjadinya informasi terpusat, yang apabila terjadi perang dapat mudah dihancurkan.

Pada mulanya ARPANET hanya menghubungkan 3 situs saja yaitu Stanford Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, University of Utah, di mana mereka membentuk satu jaringan terpadu di tahun 1969, dan secara umum ARPANET diperkenalkan pada bulan Oktober 1972. Tidak lama kemudian proyek ini berkembang pesat di seluruh daerah, dan semua universitas di negara tersebut ingin bergabung, sehingga membuat ARPANET kesulitan untuk mengaturnya.

Oleh sebab itu ARPANET dipecah manjadi dua, yaitu "MILNET" untuk keperluan militer dan "ARPANET" baru yang lebih kecil untuk keperluan non-militer seperti, universitas-universitas. Gabungan kedua jaringan akhirnya dikenal dengan nama DARPA Internet, yang kemudian disederhanakan menjadi Internet.

Internet Masuk ke Indonesia

Sejarah internet Indonesia dimulai pada awal tahun 1990-an. Saat itu jaringan internet di Indonesia lebih dikenal sebagai paguyuban network, dimana semangat kerjasama, kekeluargaan & gotong royong sangat hangat dan terasa di antara para pelakunya. Agak berbeda dengan suasana Internet Indonesia pada perkembangannya kemudian yang terasa lebih komersial dan individual di sebagian aktivitasnya, terutama yang melibatkan perdagangan Internet. Sejak 1988, ada pengguna awal Internet di Indonesia yang memanfaatkan CIX (Inggris) dan Compuserve (AS) untuk mengakses internet.
Berdasarkan catatan whois ARIN dan APNIC, protokol Internet (IP) pertama dari Indonesia, UI-NETLAB (192.41.206/24) didaftarkan oleh Universitas Indonesia pada 24 Juni 1988. RMS Ibrahim, Suryono Adisoemarta, Muhammad Ihsan, Robby Soebiakto, Putu, Firman Siregar, Adi Indrayanto, dan Onno W. Purbo merupakan beberapa nama-nama legendaris di awal pembangunan Internet Indonesia di tahun 1992 hingga 1994. Masing-masing personal telah mengontribusikan keahlian dan dedikasinya dalam membangun cuplikan-cuplikan sejarah jaringan komputer di Indonesia.

Tulisan-tulisan tentang keberadaan jaringan Internet di Indonesia dapat dilihat di beberapa artikel di media cetak seperti KOMPAS berjudul "Jaringan komputer biaya murah menggunakan radio"di bulan November 1990. Juga beberapa artikel pendek di Majalah Elektron Himpunan Mahasiswa Elektro ITB di tahun 1989.

Di sekitar tahun 1994 mulai beroperasi IndoNet yang dipimpin oleh Sanjaya. IndoNet merupakan ISP komersial pertama Indonesia. Pada waktu itu pihak POSTEL belum mengetahui tentang celah-celah bisnis Internet & masih sedikit sekali pengguna Internet di Indonesia. Sambungan awal ke Internet dilakukan menggunakan dial-up oleh IndoNet, sebuah langkah yang cukup nekat barangkali. Lokasi IndoNet masih di daerah Rawamangun di kompleks dosen UI, kebetulan ayah Sanjaya adalah dosen UI. Akses awal di IndoNet mula-mula memakai mode teks dengan shell account, browser lynx dan email client pine pada server AIX.

Mulai 1995 beberapa BBS di Indonesia seperti Clarissa menyediakan jasa akses Telnet ke luar negeri. Dengan memakai remote browser Lynx di AS, maka pemakai Internet di Indonesia bisa akses Internet (HTTP).

Perkembangan terakhir yang perlu diperhitungkan adalah trend ke arah e-commerce dan warung internet yang satu & lainnya saling menunjang membuahkan masyarakat Indonesia yang lebih solid di dunia informasi. Rekan-rekan e-commerce membangun komunitasnya di beberapa mailing list utama seperti warta-e-commerce@egroups.com, mastel-e-commerce@egroups.com, e-commerce@itb.ac.id & i2bc@egroups.com.

Peripheral vs. Ectopic Fat

I went to an interesting presentation the other day by Dr. George Ioannou of the University of Washington, on obesity and liver disease. He made an interesting distinction between the health effects of two types of body fat. The first is called subcutaneous fat (or peripheral fat). It accumulates right under the skin and is evenly distributed over the body's surface area, including extremities. The second is called ectopic fat. Ectopic means "not where it's supposed to be". It accumulates in the abdominal region (beer belly), the liver, muscle tissue including the heart, the pancreas, and perhaps in lipid-rich deposits in the arteries. Subcutaneous fat can be measured by taking skinfold thickness in different places on the body, or sometimes by measuring arm or leg circumference. Ectopic fat can be measured by taking waist circumference.

It's an absolutely critical distinction, because ectopic fat associates with poor health outcomes while subcutaneous fat does not. In this recent study, waist circumference was associated with increased risk of death while arm and leg circumference were associated with a reduced risk of death. I think the limb circumference association in this particular study is probably confounded by muscle mass, but other studies have also shown a strong, consistent association between ectopic fat and risk of death, but not subcutaneous fat. The same goes for dementia and a number of other diseases. I think it's more than an epidemiological asssociation. Surgically removing the abdominal fat from mice prevents insulin resistance and prolongs their lifespan.

People with excess visceral fat are also much more likely to have fatty liver and cirrhosis. It makes sense if you think of them both as manifestations of ectopic fat. There's a spectrum of disorders that goes along with excess visceral fat and fatty liver: it's called the metabolic syndrome, and it affects a quarter of Americans (NHANES III). We already have a pretty good idea of what causes fatty liver, at least in lab animals: industrial vegetable oils and sugar. What's the most widely used animal model of metabolic syndrome? The sugar-fed rat. What are two of the main foods whose consumption has increased in recent decades? Vegetable oil and sugar. Hmm... Fatty liver is capable of causing insulin resistance and diabetes, according to a transgenic mouse that expresses a hepatitis C protein in its liver.

You want to keep your liver happy. All those blood tests they do in the doctor's office to see if you're healthy-- cholesterol levels, triglycerides, insulin, glucose-- reflect liver function to varying degrees.

Abdominal fat is a sign of ectopic fat distribution throughout the body, and its associated metabolic consequences. I think we know it's unhealthy on a subconscious level, because belly fat is not attractive whereas nicely distributed subcutaneous fat can be. If you have excess visceral fat, take it as a sign that your body does not like your current lifestyle. It might be time to think about changing your diet and exercise regime. Here are some ideas.

Polyunsaturated Fat Intake: What About Humans?

Now we know how to raise a healthy pig or rat: balance omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) and omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid (LNA) and keep both relatively low. LA and LNA are the most basic (and shortest) forms of omega-6 and omega-3 fats. They are the only fats the body can't make on its own. They're found in plant foods, and animal foods to a lesser extent. Animals convert them to longer-chain fats like arachidonic acid (AA; omega-6), EPA (omega-3) and DHA (omega-3). These long-chain, animal PUFA are involved in a dizzying array of cellular processes. They participate directly as well as being further elongated to form eicosanoids, a large class of very influential signaling molecules.

AA is the precursor of a number of inflammatory eicosanoids, while omega-3-derived eicosanoids tend to be less inflammatory and participate in long-term repair processes. A plausible explanation for the negative health effects of LA-rich vegetable oils is the fact that they lead to an imbalance in cellular signaling by increasing the formation of AA and decreasing the formation of EPA and DHA. Both inflammatory and anti-inflammatory signaling are necessary in the proper context, but they must be in balance for optimal function. Many modern diseases involve excess inflammation. LA also promotes oxidative and nitrosative damage to organs, as explained in the last post. This is an enormous oversimplification, but I'll skip over the details (most of which I don't know) because they could fill a stack of textbooks.

How do we raise a healthy human? Although I think pigs are a decent model organism for studying diet and health as it relates to humans, they don't have as much of a carnivorous history as we do. You would expect them to be more efficient at converting plant nutrients to their animal counterparts: carotenes to vitamin A, vitamin K1 to K2, and perhaps short-chain polyunsaturated fats (PUFA) to long-chain fats like AA, EPA and DHA. I mention it simply to point out that what goes for a pig may not necessarily go for a human when it comes to fatty acid conversion.

I've dug up a few papers exploring this question. I don't intend this post to be comprehensive but I think it's enough to get a flavor of what's going on. The first paper is an intervention trial comparing the effect of flax oil and fish oil supplementation on the fat composition of red blood cells. Investigators gave volunteers either 1.2 g, 2.4 g or 3.6 g (one teaspoon) flax oil per day; or 0.6 g or 1.2 g fish oil per day. The volunteers were U.S. firefighters, who otherwise ate their typical diet rich in omega-6. Flax oil supplementation at the two higher doses increased EPA, but did not increase DHA or decrease AA significantly. This suggests that humans can indeed convert some ALA to long-chain omega-3 fats, but adding ALA to a diet that is already high in omega-6 does not reduce AA or increase the all-important DHA.

The fish oil supplement, even at one-sixth the highest flax oil dose, increased EPA and DHA to a greater extent than flax oil, and also decreased AA. This shows that fish oil has a greater effect than flax oil on the fat profile of red blood cells in the context of a diet rich in omega-6. Another study also found that ALA intake is not associated with EPA or DHA in blood plasma. This could suggest either that humans aren't very good at converting ALA to longer n-3 fats, that the pathways are blocked by excessive LA or some other factor (a number of things block conversion of omega-3 fats), or that our bodies are already converting sufficient omega-3 and fish oil is overkill.

What happens when you reduce omega-6 consumption while increasing omega-3? In one study, participants were put on a "high LA" or "low LA" (3.8% of calories) diet. The first had an omega-6 : omega-3 ratio of 10.1, while the second had a ratio of 4.0. As in the previous intervention study, EPA was higher on the low LA diet. Here's where it gets interesting: DHA levels fell precipitously throughout the study, regardless of which diet the participants were eating. This has to do with a special requirement of the study diet: participants were not allowed to eat seafood. This shows that most of the DHA in the blood is obtained by eating DHA from animal fat, rather than elongating it from ALA such as flax oil. This agrees with the finding that strict vegetarians (vegans) have a low level of DHA in blood plasma.

In another intervention study, researchers achieved a better omega-6 : omega-3 ratio, with participants going from a baseline ratio of 32.2 to an experimental ratio of 2.2 for 10 weeks. The change in ratio was mostly from increasing omega-3, rather than decreasing omega-6. This caused an increase in serum EPA and DHA, although the DHA did not quite reach statistical significance (p= 0.06). In this study, participants were encouraged to eat fish 3 times per week, which is probably the reason their DHA rose. Participants saw a metabolic shift to fat burning, and an increase in insulin sensitivity that was on the cusp of statistical significance (p= 0.07).

I think what the data suggest is that humans can convert short-chain omega-3 (ALA) to EPA, but we don't efficiently elongate it to DHA. At least in the context of a high LA intake. Another thing to keep in mind is that serum PUFA are partially determined by what's in fat tissue. Modern Americans have an abnormally high proportion of LA in their fat tissue, sometimes over 20%. This contributes to a higher proportion of omega-6 and its derivatives in all tissues. "Wild" humans, including our paleolithic ancestors, would probably have values in the lower single digits. LA in fat tissue has a half-life of about 2 years, so restoring balance is a long-term process. Omega-3 fats do not accumulate to the same degree as LA, typically comprising about 1% of fat tissue. At this point, one could rightly ask: we know how diet affects blood polyunsaturated fats, but what's the relevance to health? There are multiple lines of evidence, all of which point in generally the same direction in my opinion.

There are associations between omega-6 intake (from vegetable oils), low omega-3 intake, and a number of health and psychiatric problems. Another line of evidence comes from intervention trials. The Lyon diet-heart study was one of the most successful intervention trials of all time. The experimental group increased their intake of fish, poultry, root vegetables, green vegetables, bread and fruit, while decreasing intake of red meat and dairy fat. A key difference between this study and other intervention trials is that participants were encouraged to eat a margarine rich in omega-3 ALA. In sum, participants decreased their total PUFA intake, decreased omega-6 intake and increased intake of ALA and long-chain omega-3s. After an average of 27 months, total mortality was 70% lower in the intervention group than in the control group eating the typical diet! This effect was not seen in trials that encouraged vegetable and grain consumption, discouraged red meat and dairy fat consumption, but didn't alter PUFA intake or the omega-6 : omega-3 ratio, such as the Women's Health Initiative.

As usual, the most important line of evidence comes from healthy non-industrial cultures that did not suffer from modern non-communicable diseases. They invariably consumed very little omega-6 LA (3% of calories or less), ate a roughly balanced amount of omega-6 and omega-3, and had a source of long-chain (animal) omega-3. They did not eat much omega-3 from plant sources (such as flax), as concentrated sources are rare in nature. Dr. Weston Price observed that cultures throughout the world sought out seafood if available, sometimes going to great lengths to obtain it. Here's an exerpt from Nutrition and Physical Degeneration about Fiji islanders:

Since Viti Levu, one of the islands of this group, is one of the larger islands of the Pacific Ocean, I had hoped to find on it a district far enough from the sea to make it necessary for the natives to have lived entirely on land foods. Accordingly, with the assistance of the government officials and by using a recently opened government road I was able to get well into the interior of the island by motor vehicle, and from this point to proceed farther inland on foot with two guides. I was not able, however, to get beyond the piles of sea shells which had been carried into the interior. My guide told me that it had always been essential, as it is today, for the people of the interior to obtain some food from the sea, and that even during the times of most bitter warfare between the inland or hill tribes and the coast tribes, those of the interior would bring down during the night choice plant foods from the mountain areas and place them in caches and return the following night and obtain the sea foods that had been placed in those depositories by the shore tribes. The individuals who carried these foods were never molested, not even during active warfare. He told me further that they require food from the sea at least every three months, even to this day. This was a matter of keen interest, and at the same time disappointment since one of the purposes of the expedition to the South Seas was to find, if possible, plants or fruits which together, without the use of animal products, were capable of providing all of the requirements of the body for growth and for maintenance of good health and a high state of physical efficiency.

Price searched for, but did not find, vegetarian groups that were free of the diseases of civilization. What he found were healthy cultures that put a strong emphasis on nutrient-dense animal foods, particularly seafoods when available. I think all this information together suggests that the optimum, while being a fairly broad range, is a low intake of omega-6 LA (less than 3% of calories) and a modest intake of animal omega-3 for DHA.

I believe the most critical element is reducing omega-6 LA by eliminating industrial vegetable oils (soybean, corn, cottonseed, etc.) and the foods that contain them from the diet. Fats from pasture-raised ruminants (butter, beef, lamb etc.) and wild fish are naturally balanced. We no longer commonly eat the most concentrated land source of DHA, brain, so I think it's wise to eat seafood sometimes. According to the first study I cited, 1/4 teaspoon of fish oil (or cod liver oil) per day is enough to elevate plasma DHA quite significantly. This amount of omega-3 could be obtained by eating seafood weekly.

BAWANG PUTIH TEKAN HIPERTENSI

Bawang putih tidak hanya bisa menguatkan rasa masakan, juga mampu mengusir berbagai penyakit mulai dari hipertensi hingga insomnia.

JAKARTA-- Di Indonesia, bawang putih biasa digunakan sebagai bumbu masak. Padahal tumbuhan dengan nama Latih allium sativum yang termasuk genus afflum itu memiliki banyak manfaat kesehatan.

Dari umbi bawang putih per 100 gram mengandung 4,5 gram protein, 0,20 gram lemak, 23,10 gram hidrat arang, 0,22 miligram vitamin B1, 15 miligram vitamin C, 95 kalori, 134 miligram fosfor, 42 miligram zat besi dan 71 gram air.

Di samping itu dari beberapa penelitian umbi bawang putih mengandung zat aktif awcin, awn, enzim alinase, germanium, sativine, sinistrine, selenium, scordinin, nicotinic acid.

Bawang putih tumbuh secara berumpun dan berdiri tegak sampai setinggi 30-75 meter, mempunyai batang semu yang terbentuk dari pelepah-pelepah daun. Helaian daunnya mirip pita, berbentuk pipih dan memanjang. Akar bawang putih terdiri dari serabut-serabut kecil yang berjumlah banyak.

Setiap umbi bawang putih terdiri dari sejumlah anak bawang (siung) yang setiap siungnya terbungkus kulit tipis berwarna putih. Bawang putih yang semula merupakan tumbuhan daerah dataran tinggi, sekarang di Indonesia, jenis tertentu dibudidayakan di dataran rendah.

Bawang putih juga dikenal dengan beberapa nama seperi Garlic (Inggris), Bawang (Jawa), Bawang Bodas (Sunda), Bawang Handak (Lampung), Kasuna (Bali), Lasuna pute (Bugis), Bhabang pote (Madura); Bawa bodudo (Ternate), Kalfeo foleu (Timor).

Berdasarkan beberapa literatur, bawang putih berfungsi sebagai obat terhadap penyakit. Antara lain hipertensi, asma, batuk, masuk angin, sakit kepala hingga sulit tidur (insomnia) dan lain-lain. Berikut cara penggunaannya:

Hipertensi. Ambil 3 siung bawang putih. Kemudian ditumbuk halus dan diperas dengan air secukupnya. Saring. Minum secara teratur setiap hari. Atau, sebanyak 2 siung bawang putih dipanggang dengan api. Lalu dimakan setiap pagi selama 7 hari. Asma, batuk dan masuk angin. Siapkan 3 siung bawang putih, 1 sendok makan madu dan gula batu secukupnya. Kemudian bawang putih ditumbuk halus, kemudian dicampur bersama bahan lainnya sampai merata dan diperas/disaring. Minum ramuan itu setiap pagi sampai sembuh.

Sakit kepala. Ambil bawang putih laluditumbuk halus. Kemudian kompres pada dahi.

Sakit kuning, sesak nafas dan busung air. Sediakan satu umbi bawang putih, 1 potong gula batu sebesar telur ayam. Tumbuk halus umbi bawang putih, kemudian rebus bersama gula batu dengan tiga gelas air sampai mendidih. Aduk rata dan saring, minum dua kali sehari sebanyak dua sendok makan.

Ambeien. Umbi bawang putih ditumbuk halus, kemudian diperas untuk diambil airnya. Oles di sekitar dubur setiap hari. Luka memar karena tikaman atau pukulan. Ambil bawang putih dan 1 sendok madu. Bawang putih ditumbuk halus, kemudian diberi 1 sendok madu dan dicampur sampai merata. Oleskan pada bagian yang luka.

Luka kena benda tajam berkarat. Umbi bawang putih dibakar kemudian celupkan ke dalam minyak kelapa, lalu ditumbuh halus. Oleskan pada bagian yang luka.

Mengusir cacing kremi dan cacing perut. Ambil beberapa siung bawang putih, dikupas dan dicuci bersih kemudian langsung dimakan. S

ulit tidur (insomnia). Ambil beberapa siung bawang putih. Kupas dan cuci bersih. Makan langsung setiap saat sebelum tidur. (berbagai sumber/ri)http://republika.co.id/berita/16645.html

SehatHerbal.Com, menyediakan ektrak Bawang PUtih, harga 50rb/45 kapsul. Info lebih lanjut ke 021-91752768 atau bisa beli langsung di SehatHerbal.Com, Mangga 2 Square, Llantai UG Blok C- dekat Optik dan Travel.

Polyunsaturated Fat Intake: Effects on the Heart and Brain

I'm revisiting the topic of the omega-6/omega-3 balance and total polyunsaturated fat (PUFA) intake because of some interesting studies I've gotten a hold of lately (thanks Robert). Two of the studies are in pigs, which I feel are a decent model organism for studying the effect of diet on health as it relates to humans. Pigs are omnivorous (although more slanted toward plant foods), have a similar digestive system to humans (although sturdier), are of similar size and fat composition to humans, and have been eating grains for about the same amount of time as humans.

In the last post on the omega-6/omega-3 balance, I came to the conclusion that a roughly balanced but relatively low intake of omega-6 and omega-3 fats is consistent with the diets of healthy non-industrial cultures. There were a few cultures that had a fairly high long-chain omega-3 intake from seafood (10% of calories), but none ate much omega-6.

The first study explores the effect of omega-6 and omega-3 fats on heart function. Dr. Sheila Innis and her group fed young male pigs three different diets:

1. An unbalanced, low PUFA diet. Pig chow with 1.2% linoleic acid (LA; the main omega-6 plant fat) and 0.06% alpha linolenic acid (ALA; the main omega-3 plant fat).
   
2. A balanced, low PUFA diet. Pig chow with 1.4% LA and 1.2% ALA.
3. An unbalanced, but better-than-average, "modern diet". Pig chow with 11.6% LA and 1.2% ALA.

After 30 days, they took a look at the pigs' hearts. Pigs from the first and third (unbalanced) groups contained more "pro-inflammatory" fats (arachidonic acid; AA) and less "anti-inflammatory" fats (EPA and DHA) than the second group. The first and third groups also experienced an excessive activation of "pro-inflammatory" proteins, such as COX-2, the enzyme inhibited by aspirin, ibuprofen and other NSAIDs.

The most striking finding of all was the difference in lipid peroxidation between groups. Lipid peroxidation is a measure of oxidative damage to cellular fats. In the balanced diet hearts, peroxidation was half the level found in the first group, and one-third the level found in the third group! This shows that omega-3 fats exert a powerful anti-oxidant effect that can be more than counteracted by excessive omega-6. Nitrosative stress, another type of damage, tracked with n-6 intake regardless of n-3, with the third group almost tripling the first two. I think this result is highly relevant to the long-term development of cardiac problems, and perhaps cardiovascular disease in general.

In another study with the same lead author Sanjoy Ghosh, rats fed a diet enriched in omega-6 from sunflower oil showed an increase in nitrosative damage, damage to mitochondrial DNA, and a decrease in maximum cardiac work capacity (i.e., their hearts were weaker). This is consistent with the previous study and shows that the mammalian heart does not like too much omega-6! The amount of sunflower oil these rats were eating (20% food by weight) is not far off from the amount of industrial oil the average American eats.

A third paper by Dr. Sheila Innis' group studied the effect of the omega-6 : omega-3 balance on the brain fat composition of pigs, and the development of neurons in vitro (in a culture dish). There were four diets, the first three similar to those in the first study:

1. Deficient. 1.2% LA and 0.05% ALA.
2. Contemporary. 10.7% LA and 1.1% ALA.
   
3. Evolutionary. 1.2% LA and 1.1% ALA.
4. Supplemented. The contemporary diet plus 0.3% AA and 0.3% DHA.

The first thing they looked at was the ability of the animals to convert ALA to DHA and concentrate it in the brain. DHA is critical for brain and eye development and maintenance. The evolutionary diet was most effective at putting DHA in the brain, with the supplemented diet a close second and the other three lagging behind. The evolutionary diet was the only one capable of elevating EPA, another important fatty acid derived from ALA. If typical fish oil rather than isolated DHA and AA had been given as the supplement, that may not have been the case. Overall, the fatty acid composition of the brain was quite different in the evolutionary group than the other three groups, which will certainly translate into a variety of effects on brain function.

The researchers then cultured neurons and showed that they require DHA to develop properly in culture, and that long-chain omega-6 fats are a poor substitute. Overall, the paper shows that the modern diet causes a major fatty acid imbalance in the brain, which is expected to lead to developmental problems and probably others as well. This can be partially corrected by supplementing with fish oil.

Together, these studies are a small glimpse of the countless effects we are having on every organ system, by eating fats that are unfamiliar to our pre-industrial bodies. In the next post, I'll put this information into the context of the modern human diet.